Navigation Aids

A navigational aid (also known as aid to navigation, ATON, or navaid) is any sort of marker which aids the traveler in navigation; the term is most commonly used to refer to nautical or aviation travel. Common types of such aids include lighthouses, buoys,fog signals, and day beacons.

According to the glossary of terms in the United States Coast Guard Light list, an Aid to Navigation is any device external to a vessel or aircraft specifically intended to assist navigators in determining their position or safe course, or to warn them of dangers or obstructions to navigation.

A lighthouse is an easily recognized aid to navigation.

Instrument landing system

An instrument landing system (ILS) is a radio beam transmitter that provides a direction for approaching aircraft that tune their receiver to the ILS frequency.

It is a ground-based instrument approach system that provides precision lateral and vertical guidance to an aircraft approaching and landing on a runway, using a combination of radio signals and, in many cases, high-intensity lighting arrays to enable a safe landing during instrument meteorological conditions (IMC), such as lowceilings or reduced visibility due to fog, rain, or blowing snow.

fog, rain, or blowing snow.

Block Diagram for Navigation, Guidance and Control

Guidance, Navigation and Control

Guidance, navigation and control (abbreviated GNC, GN&C, or G&C) is a branch of engineering dealing with the design of systems to control the movement of vehicles, especially, automobiles, ships, aircraft, and spacecraft. In many cases these functions can be performed by trained humans. However, because of the speed of, for example, a rocket's dynamics, human reaction time is too slow to control this movement. Therefore, systems—now almost exclusively based around digital electronics—are used for such control. Even in cases where humans can perform these functions, it is often the case that GNC systems provide benefits such as alleviating operator work load, smoothing turbulence, fuel savings, etc. In addition, sophisticated applications of GNC enable automatic or remote control.

• Guidance refers to the determination of the desired path of travel (the "trajectory") from the vehicle's current location to a designated target, as well as desired changes in velocity, rotation and acceleration for following that path.
• Navigation refers to the determination, at a given time, of the vehicle's location and velocity (the "state vector") as well as its attitude.
• Control refers to the manipulation of the forces, by way of steering controls, thrusters, etc., needed to track guidance commands while maintaining vehicle stability.

Guidance, navigation and control software command the GN&C system to effect vehicle control and to provide the sensor and controller data needed to compute these commands. The process involves three steps: guidance equipment and software first compute the orbiter location required to satisfy mission requirements, navigation then tracks the vehicle's actual location, and flight control then transports theorbiter to the required location.

A redundant set of four orbiter general-purpose computers forms the primary avionics software system; a fifth GPC is used as the backup flight system.

The GPCs interface with the various systems through the orbiter's flight forward and flight aft multiplexers/demultiplexers.
 The data buses serve as a conduit for signals going to and from the various sensors that provide velocity and attitude information as well as for signals traveling to and from the orbiter propulsion systems, orbiter aerodynamic control surfaces, and displays and controls.


The GN&C system consists of two operational modes: auto and manual (control stick steering). In the automatic mode, the primary avionics software system essentially allows the GPCs to fly the vehicle; the flight crew simply selects the various operational sequences. The flight crew may control the vehicle in the control stick steering mode using hand controls, such as the rotational hand controller, translational hand controller, speed brake/thrust controller and rudder pedals. The translational hand controller is available only for the commander, but both the commander and pilot have a rotational hand controller.


In the control stick steering mode, flight crew commands must still pass through and be issued by the GPCs. There are no direct mechanical links between the flight crew and the orbiter's various propulsion systems or aerodynamic surfaces; the orbiter is an entirely digitally controlled, fly-by-wire vehicle.


During launch and ascent, most of the GN&C commands are directed to gimbal the three space shuttle main engines and solid rocket boosters to maintain thrust vector control through the vehicle's center of gravity at a time when the amount of consumables is changing rapidly. In addition, the GN&C controls SSME throttling for maximum aerodynamic loading of the vehicle during ascent-referred to as max q-and to maintain an acceleration of no greater than 3 g's during the ascent phase. To circularize the orbit and perform on-orbit and deorbit maneuvers, the GN&C commands the orbital maneuvering system engines. At external tank separation, on orbit and during portions of entry, GN&C controls commands to the reaction control system. In atmospheric flight, GN&C controls the orbiter aerodynamic flight control surfaces.


Functions of GN&C software include flight control, guidance, navigation, hardware data processing and flight crew display. Specific function tasks and their associated GN&C hardware vary with each mission phase.
Vehicle control is maintained and in-flight trajectory changes are made during powered flight by firing and gimbaling engines. During atmospheric flight, these functions are performed by deflecting aerosurfaces. Flight control computes and issues the engine fire and gimbal commands and aerosurface deflection commands.
Flight control includes attitude processing, steering, thrust vector control and digital autopilots. Flight control receives vehicle dynamics commands (attitudes, rates and accelerations) from guidance software or flight crew controllers and processes them for conversion to effector commands (engine fire, gimbal or aerosurface). Flight control output commands are based on errors for stability augmentation. The errors are the difference between the commanded attitude, aerosurface position, body rate or body acceleration and the actual attitude, position, rate or acceleration.


Actual attitude is derived from inertial measurement unit angles, aerosurface position is provided by feedback transducers in the aerosurface servoamplifiers, body rates are sensed by rate gyro assemblies, and accelerations are sensed by accelerometer assemblies. In atmospheric flight, flight control adjusts control sensitivity based on air data parameters derived from local pressures sensed by air data probes and performs turn coordination using body attitude angles derived from IMU angles. Thus, GN&C hardware required to support flight control is a function of the mission phase.


The guidance steering commands used by the flight control software are augmented by the guidance software or are manually commanded by the hand controller or speed brake/thrust controller. When flight control software uses the steering commands computed by guidance software, it is termed automatic guidance; when the flight crew is controlling the vehicle by hand, it is called control stick steering. The commands computed by guidance are those required to get from the current state (position and velocity) to a desired state (specified by target conditions, attitude, airspeed and runway centerline). The steering commands consist of translational and rotational angles, rates and accelerations. Guidance receives the current state from navigation software. The desired state or targets are part of the initialized software load and some may be changed manually in flight.
The navigation system maintains an accurate estimate of vehicle position and velocity, referred to as a state vector. From position, attitude and velocity, other parameters (acceleration, angle of attack) are calculated for use in guidance and for display to the crew. The current state vector is mathematically determined from the previous state vector by integrating the equations of motion using vehicle acceleration as sensed by the IMUs and/or computed from gravity and drag models. The alignment of the IMU and, hence, the accuracy of the resulting state vector deteriorate as a function of time. Celestial navigation instruments (star trackers and crewman optical alignment sight) are used to maintain IMU alignment in orbit. For entry, the accuracy of the IMU-derived state vector is, however, insufficient for either guidance or the flight crew to bring the spacecraft to a pinpoint landing. Therefore, data from other navigation sensors-air data system, tactical air navigation, microwave scan beam landing system and radar altimeter-is blended into the state vector at different phases of entry to provide the necessary accuracy. The three IMUs maintain an inertial reference and provide velocity changes until the microwave scan beam landing system is acquired. Navigation-derived air data are needed during entry as inputs to guidance, flight control and flight crew dedicated displays. Such data are provided by tactical air navigation, which supplies range and bearing measurements beginning at 160,000 feet; the air data system provides information at about Mach 3. Tactical air navigation is used until the microwave scan beam landing system is acquired or an altitude of 1,500 feet is reached if MSBLS is not available.
During rendezvous and proximity operations, the onboard navigation system maintains the state vectors of both the orbiter and target vehicle. During close operations (separation of less than 15 miles), these two state vectors must be very accurate in order to maintain an accurate relative state vector. Rendezvous radar measurements (range and range rate) are used for a separation of about 15 miles to 100 feet to provide the necessary relative state vector accuracy. When two vehicles are separated by less than 100 feet, the flight crew relies primarily on visual monitoring (aft and overhead windows and closed-circuit television).


In summary, GN&C hardware sensors used by navigation include IMUs, star trackers, the crewman optical alignment sight, tactical air navigation, air data system, microwave scan beam landing system, radar altimeter and rendezvous radar. The GN&C hardware sensors used by the flight control system are accelerometer assemblies, orbiter rate gyro assemblies, solid rocket booster rate gyro assemblies, controllers and aerosurface servoamplifiers.

Modern Navigation Methods

Dead reckoning

 or DR, in which one advances a prior position using the ship's course and speed. The new position is called a DR position. It is generally accepted that only course and speed determine the DR position. Correcting the DR position for leeway, current effects, and steering error result in an estimated position or EP. An inertial navigator develops an extremely accurate EP.

Pilotage

 involves navigating in restricted waters with frequent determination of position relative to geographic and hydrographic features.

Celestial navigation

 involves reducing celestial measurements to lines of position using tables, spherical trigonometry, and almanacs.

Electronic navigation 

Radio navigation

 uses radio waves to determine position by either radio direction finding systems or hyperbolic systems, such asDecca, Omega and LORAN-C.

Radar navigation

 uses radar to determine the distance from or bearing of objects whose position is known. This process is separate from radar’s use as a collision avoidance system

Satellite navigation

 uses artificial earth satellite systems, such as GPS, to determine position

Modern Techniques of Navigation

Most modern navigation relies primarily on positions determined electronically by receivers collecting information from satellites. Most other modern techniques rely on crossing lines of position or LOP. A line of position can refer to two different things: a line on a chart and a line between the observer and an object in real life. A bearing is a measure of the direction to an object.^[18] If the navigator measures the direction in real life, the angle can then be drawn on a nautical chartand the navigator will be on that line on the chart.

In addition to bearings, navigators also often measure distances to objects.On the chart, a distance produces a circle or arc of position. Circles, arcs, and hyperbolae of positions are often referred to as lines of position.

If the navigator draws two lines of position, and they intersect he must be at that position. A fix is the intersection of two or more LOPs.

If only one line of position is available, this may be evaluated against the Dead reckoning position to establish an estimated position.

Lines (or circles) of position can be derived from a variety of sources:

• celestial observation (a short segment of the circle of equal altitude, but generally represented as a line),
• terrestrial range (natural or man made) when two charted points are observed to be in line with each other,
• compass bearing to a charted object,
• radar range to a charted object,
• on certain coastlines, a depth sounding from echo sounder or hand lead line.

There are some methods seldom used today such as "dipping a light" to calculate the geographic range from observer to lighthouse.

Methods of navigation have changed through history. Each new method has enhanced the mariner’s ability to complete his voyage. One of the most important judgments the navigator must make is the best method to use. Some types of navigation are depicted in the table.

Basic concepts

Latitude

Roughly, the latitude of a place on Earth is its angular distance north or south of the equator. Latitude is usually expressed in degrees (marked with °) ranging from 0° at the Equator to 90° at the North and South poles. The latitude of the North Pole is 90° N, and the latitude of the South Pole is 90° S.^[10] Mariners calculated latitude in the Northern Hemisphere by sighting the North Star Polaris with a sextant and sight reduction tables to correct for height of eye and atmospheric refraction. The height of Polaris in degrees above the horizon is the latitude of the observer, within a degree or so.

Longitude

Similar to latitude, the longitude of a place on Earth is the angular distance east or west of the prime meridian or Greenwich meridian.^[10] Longitude is usually expressed in degrees (marked with °) ranging from 0° at the Greenwich meridian to 180°east and west. Sydney, for example, has a longitude of about 151° east. New York City has a longitude of 74° west. For most of history, mariners struggled to determine longitude. Longitude can be calculated if the precise time of a sighting is known. Lacking that, one can use a sextant to take a lunar distance (also called the lunar observation, or lunar for short) that, with a nautical almanac, can be used to calculate the time at zero longitude (see Greenwich Mean Time). Reliablemarine chronometers were unavailable until the late 18th century and not affordable until the 19th century.For about a hundred years, from about 1767 until about 1850, mariners lacking a chronometer used the method of lunar distances to determine Greenwich time to find their longitude. A mariner with a chronometer could check its reading using a lunar determination of Greenwich time.